agribusiness management is very important in Africa development

Agribusiness – Meaning - Definition – Structure of Agribusiness (Input sector, Farm sector and Product sector) – Importance of Agribusiness in Indian Economy.

Agri-business as a concept was born in Harvard University in 1957 with the publication of a book “A concept of Agri-business”, written by John David and A. Gold Berg. It was introduced in Philippines in early 1966, when the University of the Philippines offered an Agri-business Management (ABM) programme at the under-graduate level. In 1969, the first Advanced Agri- business Management seminar was held in Manila.

agribusiness management

Definition of Agri-business:

“Agri-business is the sum total of all operations involved in the manufacture and distribution of farm supplies, production activities on the farm, storage, processing and distribution of farm commodities and items made from them” (John David and Gold Berg)

Agri-business involves three sectors:

1. Input sector: It deals with the supply of inputs required by the farmers for raising crops, livestock and other allied enterprises. These include seeds, fertilizers, chemicals, machinery and fuel.

2. Farm sector: It aims at producing crops, livestock and other products.

3. Product sector: It deals with various aspects like storage, processing and marketing the finished products so as to meet the dynamic needs of consumers.

Therefore, Agribusiness is sum total of all operations or activities involved in the business of production and marketing of farm supplies and farm products for achieving the targeted objectives.

Importance of Agri-business:

1. It deals with agricultural sector and also with the portion of industrial sector, which is the major source of farm inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, machines, processing and post harvest technologies.

2. It suggests and directs the government and private sectors for development of sub sectors.

3. It contributes a good part of the national economy.

Dimensions of Agri-business:

1. It deals with different components of both agricultural and industrial sector, their inter- dependence and influence of one sector on other.

2. It deals with decision making process of farm either private or government in relation to production and selling aspects.

3. It deals with strengths and weaknesses of a project and thereby their viability in competing enterprises.

4. Agri-business is always market oriented.

         

5. Structure of Agri-business is generally vertical and it comprises the following

a. Govt. policies and programmes regarding raising of crops or taking enterprises etc.,

b. Research and extension programmes of the Govt.

c. Farm supplies or inputs

d. Agricultural production

e. Processing

f. Marketing of agricultural products

Scope of Agri-business:

1) Our daily requirements of food and fiber products at desired place at required form and time come from efficient and hard working of many business personnel in input, farm and food production and also in marketing them. The entire system in brief is called Agri- business.

2) Agribusiness, of late, is combining the diverse commercial enterprises, using heterogeneous combination of labour, materials, capital and technology.

3) It is a dynamic sector and continuously meets current demands of consumers in domestic and world markets.

4) Agri-business establishment leads to strengthening of infrastructural facilities in that area, expansion of credit, raw materials supply agencies, adoption of modern technology in production and marketing of agricultural products.

5) Agri-business provides crucial forward and backward linkages.

(Backward linkage include supply of inputs, credit, production technologies, farm

services etc.,

A forward linkage includes storage, processing, transportation and marketing aspects.)

6) Agri-business generates potential employment opportunities.

7) It adds value to products and thereby increases the net profits.

Structure of Agri-business:

As mentioned earlier agri-business sector provides crucial backward and forward linkages. It involves two important sectors.

1. Farm input sector: It deals with agro-based industries providing seeds, fertilizers, feed, chemicals etc., The industries supplying machinery or equipment, implements and petroleum etc are also important in this regard.

2. Farm product sector: It deals with production and distribution of farm commodities. Large co- operative bodies also exist in Agri-business, but they are few in number, whereas small scaled agro- industries are large in number. The vertical integration of a farm is very common in poultry, fruit and vegetable farms.

(Horizontal integration: If one firm assumes the functions of other firm is called the horizontal integration Ex: Co-operative marketing societies, Co-operative farming societies.

Vertical integration: If one firm assumes other functions which are having close relationship.

a. If one firm assumes other functions (succeeding) related to consumption function is called forward

integration.

Ex: A wholesaler firm assuming the function of a retailer.

      

b. If one firm assumes the other functions (proceeding) related to the production function is called backward integration.

Ex: A wholesaler firm assumes the functions such as assembling, processing, packing etc.,

Conglomerate integration: If one firm assumes several functions which do not have any relationship.

Democratic leadership: The lessons of exemplary models for democratic governance

Leadership is one of the world’s oldest preoccupations and a universal phenomenon in humans (Bass, 1990). From ancient to modern history, leadership has played an integral role in developing groups, societies, and nations. Over centuries, leadership has been defined in terms of leaders??

Leadership is one of the world’s oldest preoccupations and a universal phenomenon in humans (Bass, 1990). From ancient to modern history, leadership has played an integral role in developing groups, societies, and nations. Over centuries, leadership has been defined in terms of leaders’ behaviors. Bass attempted to define the concept of leadership from the classics of Western, Egyptian, Greek, and Chinese literature as early as the 6th century BC. The Old and New Testaments and the classics of Homer, Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius noted the roles of leaders.
As civilization and administration intricately and intimately develop in history and flow through history (Waldo, 2001), leadership also emerges. 

Although the Oxford English Dictionary noted the appearance of the word leader in the English language as early as the year 1300, the word leadership did not appear until about 1800 (Bass, 1990; Stogdill, 1974). Concepts of leadership can be traced back to ancient history, but definitions and classifications of leadership start from the early 20th century (Rost, 1991). In the past 50 years, there have been as many as 65 different classification systems to define the dimensions of leadership (Northouse, 1997). As with the definitions of leadership, the definitions of democratic leadership are also dynamic and abundant. For instance, from 1938 to 1985, there were 29 different definitions and styles of democratic leadership (Bass, 1990). Luthans (1998) reviewed 8 different democratic leadership styles drawn from the classic studies and theories of leadership.

 These different definitions and styles have contributed to the fact that there has been no clear, well-developed definition of democratic leadership (Gastil, 1994). Furthermore, a recent meta-analysis reached
Democratic leadership suggests that leadership can include people rather than treating them simply as followers of a leader. Understanding what this means conceptually, and its implications for practice in schools and other educational settings, raises complex and challenging issues. The concept of democracy has a variety of meanings. The concept of leadership itself is much debated, with increasing attention being given to the idea that in practice it is a distributed and emergent phenomenon involving not only senior leaders but also numerous others who contribute to leadership through everyday interactions. 

A narrow, minimalist idea of democratic leadership sees it as a style of leadership that a principal or headteacher might adopt so that others, such as staff and students, feel consulted and included. This has limited potential for transforming education. A broader conception, with greater relevance to education, sees democratic leadership as having a much richer and more ambitious focus.

 A rich perspective of democratic leadership not only promotes power sharing and transforming dialogue that enhances understanding (rather than entrenching people’s existing views and self-interests) but also cultivates holistic learning as rounded, ethical “citizens” of the organization and relational well-being through a community that fosters both belonging and individuality. Democratic leadership that is rich in this way encourages a sense of agency across the school and addresses power differences so the practice of democratic leadership becomes a shared, collaborative process in which all as co-leaders contribute proactively to innovation and the life of the school. It also recognizes the importance of the structural context from which leadership as a complex, distributed phenomenon emerges.

Democratic leadership grows from and is expressed through enabling structures, such as a culture that explicitly shows that inclusive participation is valued and institutional spaces and resources that provide opportunities for power sharing, transforming dialogue and the growth of holistic learning and relational well-being. Both (enabling) structures and (participative and empowering) agency are essential features of democratic leadership.

Economic growth in Ghana

At the time of independence in 1957, Ghana had a better legacy than many other countries in the sub-Saharan region
At the time of independence in 1957, Ghana had a better legacy than many other countries in the sub-Saharan region. It was the largest producer and exporter of cocoa in the world, exported one-tenth of the world's gold and had substantial foreign exchange reserves. Moreover, its infrastructure was relatively well developed coupled with the best-trained and skilled workforce in the region. 

Ghana's per capita income identified it as a middle-income country, comparable to South Korea. By the mid-to the late 1960s, however, the situation had changed radically: growth had fallen to 0.4 per cent, foreign exchange reserves had been hugely depleted, and the external debt had reached unsustainable levels. Standard of living fell, with the minimum wage at half the level of independence with considerably higher levels of poverty. 

This recession continued throughout the 1970s. Between 1970 and 1983 import volumes fell by 33 per cent whiles export earnings in real terms halved with domestic savings and investments falling from 12 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) to effectively zero. Moreover, a severe drought in the late 1970s and early 1980s compounded by the repatriation of Ghanaians from Nigeria in 1983 added to the woes of the Ghanaian economy (Gockel and Amu, 2003). 

By the early 1980s inflation stood at more than 100 per cent and per capita incomes had fallen from US $1,009 in 1960, to US $739. From Figure 4.1, we observe that from 1960 to 1983, a youthful Ghana experienced very erratic growth. That period was considered the'dark years' recording low, sometimes negative, unstable GDP growth. After 1983, which marks the start of the Economic Recovery Programme (ERP), growth stabilized around the 5 per cent mark up until 2008 where growth began to fluctuate again. 

In the last decade Ghana has continued to register relatively commendable economic growth rates, but its recent experiences suggest major macroeconomic challenges in the form of a sharp currency depreciation, deepening energy crisis, deteriorating macroeconomic imbalance, rising inflation and interest rates. Over time, budget deficits and inflation have continued to remain high, with successive governments finding it quite a challenge to reduce them significantly. This is why,Over the last several decades of Ghana’s economic development, as considered in this study, two distinctly different economic strategies have been pursued by the government of the country. 

There existed some form of economic planning even before Ghana’s independence in 1957 and, over the years, government controls in resource allocation became marked, particularly so during the late 1970s and early 1980s. But, with the Economic Recovery Programme (ERP), initiated in 1983, a diametrically opposite policy regime was instituted. With the ERP, there began implementation of Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) under close supervision by the IMF and the World Bank. This chapter presents a chronological account of the policies and reforms pursued by the country. 

In the next section (Sect. 2.2), we list the various development plans as prepared/implemented which, in the late 1970s and the early 1980s, left the economy labouring under a severe form of price controls. Section 2.3 deals with the initiation of the ERP, in particular, ERP I (1983–1986) and ERP II (1986–1989).

The economic benefits and costs of entrepreneurship

This article critically reviews the literature on the economic benefits of publicly funded basic research. In that literature, three main methodological approaches have been adopted — econometric studies, surveys and case studies. Econometric studies are subject to certain methodological

This article critically reviews the literature on the economic benefits of publicly funded basic research. In that literature, three main methodological approaches have been adopted — econometric studies, surveys and case studies. Econometric studies are subject to certain methodological limitations but they suggest that the economic benefits are very substantial. These studies have also highlighted the importance of spillovers and the existence of localisation effects in research. 

From the literature based on surveys and on case studies, it is clear that the benefits from public investment in basic research can take a variety of forms. We classify these into six main categories, reviewing the evidence on the nature and extent of each type. 

The relative importance of these different forms of benefit apparently varies with scientific field, technology and industrial sector.

 Consequently, no simple model of the economic benefits from basic research is possible. 

We reconsider the rationale for government funding of basic research, arguing that the traditional ‘market failure’ justification needs to be extended to take account of these different forms of benefit from basic research. 

The article concludes by identifying some of the policy implications that follow from this review

The Worst Air Disaster You’ve Never Heard Of

In the early days of flight, airships were hailed as the future of war. Then disaster struck the USS Akron.

It would be the greatest day in the history of Akron, Ohio. Forget the opening of the Ohio and Erie Canal, which allowed the budding metropolis to become an industrial center. No, the Rubber City—so-called because of the factories established there by Goodrich, Firestone, General Tire, and Goodyear—had never seen anything like this. Akron means “high” in Greek, and now, fittingly, the future was up in the sky.

The Worst Air Disaster You’ve Never Heard Of 

Before the sun rose on August 8, 1931, people poured into the streets. Lloyd Weil, Akron’s mayor, had declared a holiday, freeing from their desks and assembly lines those workers lucky enough to have jobs during the depths of the Great Depression. Cars converged from all directions, carrying people from Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Erie, Toledo, and farther afield. Many navigated epic traffic jams en route to their destination: the Goodyear-Zeppelin Airdock, where the day’s action would take place.
In all, some 250,000 people came to witness the official launch of the new U.S. Navy airship.

 It would be called the USS Akron, after the city where it was engineered and built over a span of nearly three years. Dubbed by the press “the Queen of the Skies,” it was the culmination of America’s effort to conquer the heavens using dirigibles—vessels steered through the atmosphere buoyed by gas that was lighter than air. Aviation leaders and enthusiasts were eager to see the new ship take flight; Amelia Earhart was among the luminaries who came to Akron for the launch.

The city had the air of a carnival. Goodyear offered an aerial view of the festivities in a small blimp, a technological predecessor of the mighty airship, for a dollar a ride. A music teacher for the city’s schools had written a song for the occasion, and now glee clubs stood ready to belt out “Ode to Akron.”

Thousands of people queued up in the bright sunshine to enter the egg-shaped hangar where the airship was moored. The building was so enormous it contained its own climate—rain occasionally fell inside. As the crowds streamed in, listening to no less than five brass bands blaring away, spectators blinked to adjust their eyes. Before them sat a behemoth.

Locals had seen Goodyear crafts drifting overhead before—the company had manufactured balloons since 1912 and its now famous blimps since 1925—but the Akron was an order of magnitude larger. It stood 14 stories high, ran 785 feet long, and weighed 400,000 pounds when fully loaded, dwarfing anything that had ever taken flight. The ship’s cavernous body, formed by a skeleton of curved metal sheathed in lacquered cotton, could have held everyone assembled, though the Akron’s official capacity was 2,200. It required fewer than 100 crew to fly.

As two radio broadcasters, James Wallington of NBC and Ted Husing of CBS, competed for superlatives to describe the ship to rapt audiences around the nation, the guest of honor arrived—the First Lady of the United States, Mrs. Lou Hoover, Herbert’s vivacious wife. She would perform the christening.
Preceding her at the microphone was the man most responsible for the day: Rear Admiral William Moffett, known in military circles as the “air admiral.” He reached out his hand and placed it gently on the Akron’s nose as he spoke. “We do not lead the world in our merchant marine, nor, alas, in our navy,” he said, “but we do, by the construction of this great airship, now take the lead in lighter-than-air in the world.” A roar went up from the crowd.

Moffett then quoted Henry Wadsworth Longfellow—“Sail on, not fear to breast the sea!”—before Mrs. Hoover stepped forward. “I christen thee Akron!” she declared. She pulled a red, white, and blue cord, and the front hatch of the airship opened. With a shriek, out flew 48 racing pigeons—the exact number of states in the Union.

As the brass bands struck up “The Star-Spangled Banner,” crewmen untethered a rope, and without a sound the Akron floated a few feet off the ground. When the crowd noticed that the ship had risen, a deep “oooohhh” rippled through the hangar. After a few minutes, the ship was pulled back to the ground, its brief maiden voyage over. Great success would surely follow—even if believing so meant ignoring tragedies that had gone before.

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THE LIFE OF OSAGYEFO DR. KWAME NKRUMAH

This article talks about the life story of Dr. Kwame Nkrumah and the significant role he played in the survival of the country of Ghana.

Kwame Nkrumah, born 21 September 1909 and died 27 April 1972, was a Ghanaian politician and revolutionary. He was the first Prime Minister and President of Ghana, having led the Gold Coast to independence from Britain in 1957. An influential advocate of pan-Africanism, Nkrumah was a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity and winner of the Lenin Peace Prize in 1962. After twelve years abroad pursuing higher education, developing his political philosophy and organising with other diasporic pan-Africanists, Nkrumah returned to the Gold Coast to begin his political career as an advocate of national independence. He formed the Convention People's Party, which achieved rapid success through its unprecedented appeal to the common voter. He became Prime Minister in 1952 and retained the position when Ghana declared independence from Britain in 1957. In 1960, Ghanaians approved a new constitution and elected Nkrumah President.

LIFE OF OSAGYEFO DR. KWAME NKRUMAH

His administration was both nationalist and socialist. Thus, it funded national industrial and energy projects, developed a strong national education system and promoted a national and pan-African culture. Under Nkrumah, Ghana played a leading role in African international relations during the decolonisation period. In 1964, a constitutional amendment made Ghana a One-party state, with Nkrumah as president for life of both the nation and party. Nkrumah was deposed in 1966 by the National Liberation Council, which, under the supervision of international financial institutions, privatised many of the country's state corporations. Nkrumah lived the rest of his life in Guinea, of which he was named honorary co-president.

Kwame Nkrumah was born on 21 September 1912 in Nkroful, Gold Coast (now in Ghana) to a poor and illiterate family. Nkroful was a small village in the Nzema area, in the far southwest of the Gold Coast, close to the frontier with the French colony of the Ivory Coast. His father did not live with the family but worked in Half Assini, where he pursued his goldsmith business until his death. Kwame Nkrumah was raised by his mother and his extended family, who lived together traditionally, with more distant relatives often visiting. He lived a carefree childhood, spent in the village, in the bush, and on the nearby sea. By the naming customs of the Akan people, he was given the name Kwame, the name given to males born on a Saturday. During his years as a student in the United States, though, he was known as Francis Nwia Kofi Nkrumah, Kofi being a name given to males born on Friday. He later changed his name to Kwame Nkrumah in 1945 in the UK, preferring the name "Kwame". According to Ebenezer Obiri Addo in his study of the future president, the name "Nkrumah", a name traditionally given to a ninth child, indicates that Kwame likely held that place in the house of his father, who had several wives.

His father, Opanyin Kofi Nwiana Ngolomah, came from Nkroful, belonging to the Akan tribe of the Asona clan. Sources indicated that Ngolomah stayed at Tarkwa-Nsuaem and dealt in the goldsmith business. In addition, Ngolomah was respected for his wise counsel by those who sought his advice on traditional issues and domestic affairs. He died in 1927

How the Asante Kingdom started.

The article talks about how the Asantes became dominant and popular in Ghana (Gold Coast), and also how the Asante Kingdom started.

The Early Asantes

Asantes fleeing Denkyira’s hegemony, many smaller Akan tribes moved eastward and settled around the city of Kumasi. By the late 17th century, these Akan peoples were drawn together and were ruled by a single leader, called the Kumasehene. Eventually, the Kumasehene became the Asantehene, and the Asante saw themselves as a single, united people. Obiri Yeboa was the first prominent Kumasehene, and he enlarged the power of his Oyoko clan (yeboa) by incorporating other local Akan nobility into his family, through a combination of force and diplomacy.

How the Asante Kingdom started

The Reign of Osei Tutu and the Golden Stool

Osei Tutu (1680-1717) was the first king of Kumasi to claim the title Asantehene. He would lead the people of Asante and Kumasi to become the dominant power of the Gold Coast. Osei Tutu had the vision and statesmanship to transform the Asante from a subordinate vassal of Denkirya to the paramount Akan kingdom. Osei Tutu had spent some time as a resident prince of the Akwamu court, learned of their military tactics, and was able to ally with that tribe. With the support of the Akwamu king, Osei Tutu revolted against Denkyira. In battle, the Asante developed a pincher formation that aimed to flank the enemy force from the sides and rear. The revolt met with success.

In 1698, the favourite wife of Osei was sent to negotiate at the Denkyira court as a sign of goodwill; instead of receiving her honourably, the enemy king raped her. After that, the war between the two kingdoms became much more savage. At the Battle of Feyiase (1701), the Asante triumphed decisively over Denkyira, bringing total victory. The Denkyirahene was killed, and that nation would persist only as a shadow of its former self. The Asante Empire was now the dominant Akan kingdom, and soon monopolised trade in the Gold Coast region.  Osei used a consultative body of the Kotoko Council to integrate the leadership of new peoples into the Asante State. As the empire expanded, incorporated peoples were allowed to join the Asante union directly or exist as semi-autonomous client states. With Osei Tutu began the tradition of the Golden Stool, a gold-glad ceremonial chair which was the physical embodiment of the entire Asante nation. It was an ancient Akan custom for each family to have a stool signifying the authority of elders, as well as stools indicating a chief’s authority in each tribe. The Golden Stool developed a spiritual and political significance beyond all proportion of this earlier tradition, and was said to have a miraculous origin. It was so sacred that even the Asantehene could not sit on it. 

The chief priest and spiritual leader of the Asante, Okomfo Anokye, was believed to have called the golden stool down from heaven. The stool houses the soul of the Asante nation and is believed to connect all Asante individuals- those dead, those living, and those yet to be born. As a political symbol, the Golden Stool was seen to transcend the power of all other stools in the Akan tradition. As Akan tribes were absorbed into the Asante union, they were made to bury their stools in a sign of deference.

The Silent Cost of Unemployment: Beyond the Paycheck

Unemployment is often measured in numbers, but its true impact stretches far beyond economic statistics. This article explores the hidden psychological, social, and structural consequences of joblessness, especially in developing economies, and argues for a more holistic approach to policy

Unemployment is typically framed as a loss of income, but its ripple effects extend deep into the fabric of society. In regions like sub-Saharan Africa, where informal economies dominate and social safety nets are thin, joblessness can trigger a cascade of personal and communal challenges.

Psychologically, prolonged unemployment erodes self-worth and identity. Work is not just a means of survival—it’s a source of structure, purpose, and social connection. Without it, individuals often experience anxiety, depression, and a sense of isolation. These effects are amplified in cultures where employment is tied to social status or familial responsibility.

Socially, unemployment can destabilize communities. Young adults without work are more vulnerable to exploitation, crime, or migration pressures. Families may fracture under financial strain, and local economies suffer as purchasing power declines. The result is a feedback loop where poverty and unemployment reinforce each other.

Structurally, the absence of inclusive labor policies and vocational training programs leaves many trapped in cycles of underemployment or informal work. Governments often focus on macroeconomic growth without addressing the mismatch between education and market demand.

To truly address unemployment, interventions must go beyond job creation. Mental health support, skills retraining, and community-based initiatives are essential. A paycheck solves one problem—but restoring dignity, purpose, and opportunity solves many.

The History of the Internet: From Military Project to Global Network

The Internet, a transformative force in modern life, began as a military research project in the late 1960s. Originally known as ARPANET, it was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense to enable secure communication between computers across

The History of the Internet: From Military Project to Global Network

The internet has become an indispensable part of modern life. From sending emails to streaming movies, shopping online to accessing world news in real-time, the internet connects billions of people across the globe. But how did it all begin? The history of the internet is a fascinating journey that spans decades of technological innovation, government collaboration, and private enterprise.

The history of the internet 

Origins in the Cold War

The story of the internet begins in the late 1950s, in the midst of the Cold War. After the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, the U.S. government felt an urgent need to invest in science and technology. This led to the creation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in 1958, a branch of the U.S. Department of Defense [1].

In the 1960s, ARPA began developing a way for military and research computers to communicate even if parts of the system were destroyed in a nuclear attack. The result was ARPANET, launched in 1969. It connected four universities—UCLA, Stanford, UC Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah—and allowed them to share data and research [2].

The Birth of Networking

ARPANET introduced a revolutionary idea: packet switching. Unlike traditional telephone lines, which require a dedicated circuit between callers, packet switching breaks data into small "packets" that travel independently and reassemble at the destination. This made communication faster, more efficient, and resilient to failure.

By the 1970s, more institutions joined ARPANET, forming a growing network of computers. Researchers Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn developed a communication protocol called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) in 1974, which allowed different networks to connect seamlessly [3]. TCP/IP became the foundation for what we now call the internet.

Going Public

In the 1980s, the internet began to expand beyond government and academic institutions. In 1983, the ARPANET officially adopted TCP/IP, and the Domain Name System (DNS) was introduced, making it easier to identify websites through names (like “www.example.com”) instead of numeric IP addresses [4].

By the late 1980s, private companies and universities started building their own networks. In 1990, ARPANET was officially decommissioned, having served its purpose as the prototype for the global internet.

The World Wide Web

While the internet provided the infrastructure for global communication, it was the World Wide Web, invented in 1989 by British computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee, that made the internet accessible to the average person [5]. Berners-Lee created the first web browser and web server, and in 1991, the first website went live.

The web allowed users to navigate through links and pages using a graphical interface. Suddenly, the internet was no longer just for scientists and researchers—it was for everyone.

The Dot-Com Boom and Beyond

In the mid-1990s, the internet rapidly commercialized. Companies launched websites, search engines like Yahoo! and Google emerged, and the era of dot-com startups began. By the year 2000, millions of people had internet access in their homes.

Despite the crash of many internet startups in the dot-com bust of 2000–2001, the internet continued to grow. Broadband replaced dial-up, smartphones brought the web to our pockets, and platforms like Facebook, YouTube, and Amazon revolutionized how we communicate, consume content, and shop.

Today’s Internet

As of 2025, the internet connects more than 5 billion people worldwide [6]. It has transformed every aspect of life—education, healthcare, politics, entertainment, and work. Technologies like cloud computing, social media, artificial intelligence, and the Internet of Things (IoT) have expanded its capabilities in ways early pioneers could hardly have imagined. Yet the internet also brings challenges: digital privacy concerns, misinformation, cybersecurity threats, and the digital divide between those with and without access.

Conclusion

The internet began as a military project designed to withstand nuclear attacks and evolved into the most powerful communication tool in human history. Its development was driven by visionaries, engineers, and researchers who believed in the power of connecting people. As we look to the future—with innovations like 6G, quantum computing, and decentralized networks—the internet’s story is still being written.

How ghana country was discovery

Anything to know about Ghana and its historical facts.
In the early days, the country Ghana was called "GOLD COAST", which was before colonialism in West Africa.

The area of the Republic of Ghana (the then Gold Coast) became known in Europe and Arabia as the Ghana Empire after the title of its Emperor, the Ghana. 

Geographically, the ancient Ghana Empire was approximately 500 miles (800 km) north and west of the modern state of Ghana, and controlled territories in the area of the Senegal River and eastward towards the Niger River, in modern Senegal, Mauritania. A reduced kingdom continued to exist after the Almoravid rule ended, and it was later incorporated into subsequent Sahelian empires such as the Mali Empire.

 Around the same time, south of the Mali empire in present-day northern Ghana, the Kingdom of Dagbon emerged. The decentralised states ruled by the tindaamba were unified into a kingdom. Many sub-kingdoms would later arise from Dagbon, including the Mossi Kingdoms of Burkina Faso and the Bouna Kingdom of the Ivory Coast.

 Dagbon pioneered Ghana's earliest learning institutions, including a university town and a writing system, before European arrival.
Toward the end of the classical era, larger regional kingdoms had formed in West Africa, one of which was the Kingdom of Ghana, north of what is today the nation of Ghana. 

Before its fall at the beginning of the 10th century, Akans migrated southward and founded several nation-states around their matriclans, including the first empire of the Bono State, founded in the 11th century and for which the Brong Ahafo (Bono Ahafo) region is named. The Mole Dagbon people, who founded the earliest centralised political kingdoms of Ghana, migrated from Lake Chad to present-day Ghana. Later, Akan ethnic groups such as the Ashanti, Akyem, Akwamu, Fante state and others are thought to possibly have roots in the original Bono State settlement at Bono Manso. 

The Ashanti kingdom's government operated first as a loose network and eventually as a centralised empire-kingdom with an advanced, highly specialised bureaucracy centred on the capital Kumasi.

By the end of the 16th century, most of the ethnic groups constituting the modern Ghanaian population had settled in their present locations. Archaeological remains found in the coastal zone indicated that the area had been inhabited since the Bronze Age (ca. 2000 BC), but these societies, based on fishing, had left few traces.

 Archaeological work also suggests that central Ghana, north of the forest zone, was inhabited as early as 3,000 to 4,000 years ago.
These migrations resulted in part from the formation and disintegration of a series of large states in the western Sudan (the region north of modern Ghana drained by the Niger River). 

Strictly speaking, Ghana was the title of the king, but the Arabs, who left records of the kingdom, applied the term to the King, the capital, and the state. The 9th-century Berber historian and geographer AI Yaqubi described ancient Ghana as one of the three most organised states in the region. Its rulers were renowned for their wealth in gold, the opulence of their courts, and their warrior/hunting skills. 

They were also masters of the trade in gold, which drew North African merchants to the western Sudan. To be continued.

Who can resolve the Gaza war? Let's talk

The Gaza War is a complex conflict

1. Historical context: Gaza Strip has been contentious since Israel's withdrawal in 2005.
2. Causes: Both sides claim self-defense, with Israel citing rocket attacks and Hamas citing blockade and occupation.
3. Humanitarian crisis:
*The Gaza War: A Complex and Contested Conflict*

The Gaza war 

The Gaza War refers to a series of conflicts between Israel and Palestinian militant groups, particularly Hamas, in the Gaza Strip. The war has resulted in significant humanitarian crises, loss of life, and widespread destruction. To understand the complexity of the issue, it's essential to examine the historical context, causes, and consequences of the conflict.

*Historical Background*

The Gaza Strip has been a contentious issue since the Israeli withdrawal in 2005. Hamas, which won the Palestinian legislative elections in 2006, has controlled Gaza since 2007. Israel and Egypt have maintained a blockade on Gaza, citing security concerns. The blockade has severely impacted the Gaza economy and humanitarian situation.

*Causes of the War*

The conflict is deeply complex, with both sides claiming self-defense. Israel argues that Hamas' rocket attacks and tunnel diggings pose a significant threat, while Hamas claims Israel's blockade and occupation are unacceptable. The situation is further complicated by the Israeli settlements in the West Bank and the displacement of Palestinians.

*Humanitarian Crisis*

The war has led to a severe humanitarian crisis, with thousands of civilian casualties, widespread destruction of infrastructure, and a dire need for humanitarian aid. The United Nations has repeatedly expressed concern over the humanitarian situation, citing the need for unrestricted access to Gaza.

*International Response*

The international community has been divided on the issue, with some countries supporting Israel's right to self-defense and others condemning the blockade and occupation. The United States has historically been a strong ally of Israel, while many European countries have called for a more balanced approach.

*Prospects for Peace*

A lasting resolution to the conflict remains elusive. Efforts to negotiate a ceasefire and restart peace talks have been challenging, with both sides having deeply entrenched positions. The issue is further complicated by internal divisions within both Israel and Palestine.

*Challenges to a Two-State Solution*

A two-state solution, which would involve Israel and Palestine existing side by side, has been the widely accepted framework for peace negotiations. However, the expansion of Israeli settlements and the division within Palestine have made this solution increasingly challenging.

*Human Rights Concerns*

Both sides have been accused of human rights violations, with Israel facing criticism for its use of force and blockade, and Hamas facing accusations of using civilians as human shields and launching rockets into civilian areas.

*Economic Impact*

The conflict has had a significant economic impact on both Israel and Gaza. The Gaza economy has been severely impacted by the blockade, while Israel has faced economic costs due to military operations and security measures.

*Conclusion*

The Gaza War is a complex and multifaceted conflict, with deep historical, political, and humanitarian dimensions. A sustainable solution will require addressing the root causes of the conflict, including the blockade, occupation, and security concerns. The international community must work towards a unified approach to address the humanitarian crisis and promote a lasting peace.

To move forward, it's essential to consider the following:

1. *Ceasefire agreements*: Negotiating and maintaining ceasefire agreements can help reduce violence and create an environment conducive to peace talks.


2. *Humanitarian access*: Ensuring unrestricted humanitarian access to Gaza can help alleviate the humanitarian crisis and improve living conditions.

3. *Addressing root causes*: Addressing the root causes of the conflict, including the blockade and occupation, is crucial to achieving a lasting peace.

4. *International cooperation*: A unified international approach can help promote a peaceful resolution and address the humanitarian crisis.

Ultimately, a lasting peace in Gaza will require a comprehensive and inclusive solution that addresses the complex historical, political, and humanitarian dimensions of the conflict.

The history of slave trade read on this blog is well explained

The trans-Atlantic slave trade, which began in the 15th century, involved the forced transportation of millions of Africans to the Americas by European powers.

 The trade devastated African societies, destabilized their economies, and profoundly impacted the continent's development for
The enslavement of people has been a part of human history for centuries. Slavery and human bondage has taken many forms, including enslaving people as prisoners of war or due to their beliefs, but the permanent, hereditary enslavement based on race later adopted in the U.S. was rare before the 15th century.

The history of slave trade

Many attributes of slavery began to change when European settlers intent on colonizing the Americas used violence and military power to compel forced labor from enslaved people. Indigenous people became the first victims of forced labor and enslavement at the hands of Europeans in the Americas.

 However, millions of Indigenous people died from disease, famine, war, and harsh labor conditions in the decades that followed.

Committed to extracting profit from their colonies in the Americas, European powers turned to the African continent. To meet their ever-growing need for labor, they initiated a massive global undertaking that relied on abduction, human trafficking, and racializing enslavement at a scale without precedent in human history. Never before had millions of people been kidnapped and trafficked over such a great distance.
The European Influence on Africa.

Europe had no contact with Sub-Saharan Africa before the Portuguese, seeking wealth and gold, sailed down the western coast of Africa and reached the Gold Coast (modern-day Ghana) in 1471. Initially focused on obtaining gold, Portugal established trading relationships and built El Mina Fort to protect its interests in the gold trade.

Over the following decades, the Spanish, English, French, Dutch, Danish, and Swedes began to make contact with Sub-Saharan Africa as well. Portugal soon converted El Mina into a prison for holding kidnapped Africans, and European traffickers built castles, barracoons, and forts on the African coast to support the forced enslavement of abducted Africans.

German and Italian merchants and bankers who did not personally traffic kidnapped Africans nonetheless provided essential funding and insurance to develop the Transatlantic Slave Trade and plantation economy. Italian merchants were essential in the effort to extend the sugar plantation system to the Atlantic Islands off the west coast of Africa, like São Tomé, and financial capital from Genoa was instrumental in expanding Portugal’s ability to traffic Africans.

By the 1600s, every major European power had established trading relationships with Sub-Saharan Africa and was participating in the transportation of kidnapped Africans to the Americas in some way. During this time period, several thousand Africans were kidnapped and trafficked to mainland Europe and the Americas, but the volume of human trafficking soon escalated to horrific proportions.

Led again by the Portuguese, European powers began to occupy the Americas in the 1500s. In the 16th and 17th centuries, using land stolen from Indigenous populations in the Americas, Europeans established plantations that relied on enslaved labor to mass produce goods (primarily sugar cane) for trading and sale. The cultivation of sugar for mass consumption became a driving force in the growing trafficking of human beings from Africa.

Europeans initially relied on Indigenous people to supply this labor. But mass killings and disease decimated Indigenous populations in what historian David Brion Davis called “the greatest known population loss in human history.”

The Indigenous population in Mexico plummeted by nearly 90% in 75 years. In Hispaniola (modern-day Haiti and Dominican Republic), the population of Arawak and Taino people fell from between 300,000 and 500,000 in 1492 to fewer than 500 people by 1542, just five decades later. Without Indigenous workers, plantation owners in the Americas grew desperate for a new source of exploited labor.


Driven by the desire for wealth, these European powers shifted from acquiring gold and other goods in Sub-Saharan Africa to trafficking in human beings. Over the following centuries, Europeans demanded that millions of Africans be trafficked to work on plantations and in other businesses in the Americas.

Slavery had existed in Africa prior to this point, but this new commodification of human beings by European powers was entirely unique and it drastically changed the African concept of enslavement
Although some African officials and merchants acquired wealth through the export of millions of people, the Transatlantic Slave Trade devastated and de-stabilized societies and economies across Africa. The scale of disruption and violence contributed to long-term conflict and violence on the continent while European powers were able to amass massive financial benefits and global power from this dehumanizing trade.

The Iberian powers of Spain and Portugal and their colonies in Uruguay and Brazil were responsible for trafficking 99% of the nearly 630,000 kidnapped Africans trafficked from 1501 to 1625. Over the next 240 years, England, France, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, the Baltic States, and their colonies joined the Iberians in actively trafficking Africans. Almost 12 million kidnapped Africans were trafficked from 1625 to 1867. Ships from Portugal and its colony Brazil alone were responsible for trafficking 5,849,300 kidnapped Africans during this time period.

Ships originating in Great Britain were responsible for trafficking more than a quarter of all people taken from Africa from 1501 to 1867. From 1726 to 1800, British ships were the leading traffickers of kidnapped Africans, responsible for taking more than two million people from Africa.

From 1626 to 1867, ships from North America were responsible for trafficking at least 305,000 captured people from Africa. In the two years before the U.S. legally ended the international slave trade in 1808, a quarter of all trafficked Africans were carried in ships that flew the U.S. flag. Rhode Island’s ports combined to organize voyages responsible for trafficking at least 111,000 kidnapped Africans, making it one of the 15 largest originating ports in the world.

Join hot discussion why africa should still depend on foreign aids?

Why should some of the African countries still depend on foreign aid for development? Africa must have its freedom.


Africa Must Have Its Freedom

For centuries, Europeans dominated the African continent. The white man arrogated to
himself the right to rule and to be obeyed by the British. His mission, he claimed, was to
“civilise” Africa. Under this chaos, the Europeans robbed the continent of vast riches and inflicted
unimaginable suffering on the African people.
All this makes a sad story, but now we must be prepared to bury the past with its unpleasant
memories and look to the future. All we ask of the former colonial powers is their goodwill and co
operation to remedy past mistakes and injustices, and to grant independence to the colonies in
Africa.

It is clear that we must find an African solution to our problems, and that this can only be
found in African unity. Divided, we are weak; united, Africa could become one of the greatest forces
for good in the world.
Although most Africans are poor, our continent has the potential to be extremely rich. Our mineral
resources, which are being exploited with foreign capital only to enrich foreign investors, range
from gold and diamonds to uranium and petroleum. Our forests contain some of the finest woods to
be grown anywhere. Our cash crops include cocoa, coffee, rubber, tobacco and cotton. As for
power, which is an important factor in any economic development, Africa contains over 40% of the
potential water power of the world, as compared with about 10% in Europe and 13% in North
America. Yet so far, less than 1% has been developed.

This is one of the reasons why we have in Africa, the paradox of poverty in the midst of plenty, and scarcity in the midst of abundance. Never before have people had within their grasp so great an opportunity for developing a continent endowed with so much wealth. Individually, the independent states of Africa, some of them potentially rich, others poor, can do little for their people. Together, by mutual help, they can
achieve much. But the economic development of the continent must be planned and pursued as a
whole.

A loose confederation designed only for economic co-operation would not provide the
necessary unity of purpose. Only a strong political union can bring about full and effective
development of our natural resources for the benefit of our people.

The political situation in Africa today is heartening and at the same time disturbing. It is
heartening to see so many new flags hoisted in place of the old; it is disturbing to see so many
countries of varying sizes and at different levels of development, weak and, in some cases, almost
helpless. If this terrible state of fragmentation is allowed to continue, it may well be disastrous for us
all.

There are at present some 28 states in Africa, excluding the Union of South Africa, and
those countries not yet free. No less than nine of these states have a population of less than three
million. Can we seriously believe that the colonial powers meant these countries to be independent,
viable states? The example of South America, which has as much wealth, if not more than North
America, and yet remains weak and dependent on outside interests, is one that every African
would do well to study. Critics of African unity often refer to the wide differences in culture, language and ideas in various parts of Africa. This is true, but the essential fact remains that we are all Africans and have
a common interest in the independence of Africa.

Ghana’s Cocoa Farmers Revolt: A Brewing Crisis in the Heart of Our Cocoa Belt

Ghana—a global cocoa powerhouse—now finds itself at the epicenter of a brewing agricultural crisis. Over 300,000 cocoa farmers have taken to the streets, protesting the newly announced farmgate price for the 2025/2026 season. The price, set at 51,660 cedis per ton (approximately 3,228 cedis per 64 kg bag), marks only a 4% increase from last year—even though farmers are facing skyrocketing production costs, Reuters.
Why Farmers Are Angry

Ghana cocoa belt 2025

Back in July, the government pledged to pay 70% of the international free-on-board (FOB) price, which could have translated to around 3,800 cedis per bag. Instead, the figure was set well below that threshold—one that producers deem unfair, especially considering cocoa from neighbouring Ivory Coast fetches nearly 700 cedis more per bag, Reuters.

This price gap has reignited fears of widespread smuggling—a problem Ghanaese authorities have been battling for years. In the 2023/24 season, the country reportedly lost around 160,000 tons of cocoa to illegal cross-border trade Reuters.
Escalating Tensions

Farmers’ frustration is now boiling over. They’ve threatened to bar COCOBOD officers—the nation's cocoa regulator—from their farms. This move isn’t symbolic; it deeply disrupts vital agricultural extension services like farming guidance and crop monitoring that COCOBOD provides.

Moreover, with rising input costs-like insecticides costing 150 cedis per unit and equipment rentals hitting 100 cedis daily, the already tight margins are rapidly shrinking, Reuters.

What’s at Stake?

The fallout could reverberate across Ghana’s economy and international cocoa markets:

Local Impact: Farmers may suffer even more, unable to sustain operations without fair compensation.


Supply Chain Risks: Continued unrest could disrupt global cocoa supply, potentially affecting chocolate producers worldwide.


Institutional Credibility: COCOBOD and the government risk losing trust unless they make meaningful interventions.


Smuggling Surge: A repeat of past illegal exports would further drain Ghana’s foreign exchange earnings.
A Way Forward

To defuse tensions and safeguard a critical industry, the government must:

Reopen negotiations with farmers and COCOBOD toward a more equitable price.


Offer temporary subsidies on agricultural inputs to offset rising costs.


Enforce stricter cross-border monitoring while improving incentives for legitimate trade.


Engage in a broader dialogue to foster transparency and confidence among farmers.
Final Thoughts

Cocoa is more than just an export commodity—it’s the economic lifeline of many rural Ghanaian communities. Ignoring farmers’ grievances isn’t just poor policy—it’s a threat to livelihoods, food security, and national reputation on the global stage.

As concerned citizens, we should follow developments closely, support fair pricing initiatives, advocate for accountability, and help amplify rural voices. After all, the future of Ghana’s cocoa-and by extension, its people-depends on how this situation is managed

Africa is potential continent let us discuss here

Africa, the cradle of humanity, is a continent of breathtaking diversity and beauty. From the Sahara's golden dunes to the lush rainforests of the Congo Basin, Africa's landscapes are as varied as its cultures.

Africa potentials

*Rich History and Heritage*

Africa's history is steeped in ancient civilizations, from Egypt's pyramids to the kingdoms of Ghana and Mali. These empires left behind a legacy of art, architecture, and knowledge that continues to inspire wonder.

*Vibrant Cultures*

Africa's cultures are a kaleidoscope of traditions, languages, and customs. From the Maasai of East Africa to the Zulu of South Africa, each community has its unique story to tell.

*Natural Wonders*

Africa is home to some of the world's most incredible natural wonders, including:

- *The Nile River*: The longest river in the world, flowing through 11 countries.

- *Mount Kilimanjaro*: The highest peak in Africa and the highest freestanding mountain in the world.

- *The Serengeti*: A vast savannah teeming with wildlife, known for the Great Migration.

- *The Okavango Delta*: A lush watery paradise in the heart of the Kalahari Desert.

*Resilience and Hope*

Despite challenges, Africa is a continent of resilience and hope. Its people are known for their warmth, hospitality, and determination to build a brighter future.

Africa's story is one of contrasts, where tradition meets modernity, and where the past informs the present. It's a continent that continues to captivate and inspire the world

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To be in a University is not as easy as you imagine

Welcome to College!

Congratulations on your decision to attend college! For the great majority of college students, it really was their decision, not just an automatic thing to do. If you happen to be one of the few who just sort of ended up in college

For want of anything better to do, the benefits of college will soon become obvious.


The reason for this book, and for almost all college courses, is that college requires commitment and effort.
Like everything else in life that leads to meaningful results, success in college is not automatic. But when you
apply yourself to your studies using the skills you’ll learn in this book, you’ll find you can succeed.


When asked, most students say they’re in college primarily for the job or career they expect to follow after college. And they are correct that college pays off enormously in terms of future earnings, job security and stability, and job satisfaction. Every statistic shows that people with a college education will make much more in their lifetime (much, much more than the cost of college itself) and be much happier with the work they do.


But job and career issues are only a part of the big picture. A college education results in many other personal benefits, and these also should be part of your motivation for doing well and continuing with your college plans.


Here are a few additional, less tangible benefits of a college education:
• You will have a fuller life and a better understanding of the world around you.
• You will gain decision-making and problem-solving skills.
• You will meet many interesting and diverse people and have a richer social life.


• You will gain self-confidence.
• You will gain learning skills that can continue for a lifetime.
• You will make wiser decisions about lifestyle issues and live healthier.
• You will make wiser economic decisions the rest of your life.
• You will be better equipped to deal with other people, organisations, governmental agencies, and all
the hassles of daily life.


• You will feel more fully a part of your community, the larger culture, and history

A college education is correlated with greater success in all those areas, even though most students are usually more concerned with making it through the next class or test than with the rest of their lives. But sometimes it helps to recall what a truly great step forward you are taking! Sadly, however, it’s important to recognise that some students do not succeed in college and drop out within the
first year. Sometimes it’s due to an unsolvable financial problem or a personal or family crisis, but most of the time, Students drop out because they’re having problems passing their courses. The two biggest causes of this problem are a lack of motivation and not having learned the skills needed to succeed in college.


A book like this one can help you stay motivated when things get tough, but it can’t necessarily give you
motivation to start with. That’s part of what you yourself have to bring to college. What we can promise you is that you can learn the skills for succeeding in college.


Special skills are needed because college isn’t the same as high school. Throughout this book, we’ll be looking at the many ways college is different from high school. To name just a few, college is different in the study skills needed, in personal skills related to being independent, in social skills for getting along with instructors and others on campus, in financial realities, in matters of personal health, and more.

This post is first posted on www.africansforum.com